path: root/nanotech/molecular-manufacturing.mdwn

Overview
========

Molecular Manufacturing is the construction of atomically-precise macroscale
products. It does *not* require the manufacturing process to be
computer-controlled at every step or to handle atoms individually, nor does it
require the chemical processes to be limited to mechanosynthesis; only the
finished product must be machine-phase.

Molecular Manufacturing is often used a synonym of 'Molecular Nanotechnology',
the vision of nanotechnology started by Eric Drexler and further explored by
Ralph Merkle, Robert Freitas and Zyvex.. While Molecular Nanotechnology is
centered around a variety of (Diamond-based) molecular machines, from the
Drexler Arm (A setting in which one of these builds a copy of itself is pictured
below) to the Respirocyte to the Neon Pump, manufacturing is a more global
process, that concerns itself with such machines and with more global
objectives, such as cheap, distributed manufacturing technologies, which is why
'molecular manufacturing' is the preferred name for this article.

Nanotechnology, in general, is the art of building practical, complex machinery
with sizes varying from 100 to 1 nanometers. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are
new names for the gradually, naturally extended discipline of chemistry; and so
nanoscience should not be confused with the much more specific field of
Molecular Nanotechnology. The machines and processes shown in this article are
not filling journals or being made daily in laboratories.

How small are atoms really? Kenneth Ford says,

> ''"To arrive at the number of atoms in a cubic centimeter of water (a few
> drops), first cover the earth with airports, one against the other. Then go up
> a mile or so and build another solid layer of airports. Do this 100 million
> times. The last layer will have reached out to the sun and will contain some
> 1016 airports (ten million billion). The number of atoms in a few drops of
> water will be the number of airports filling up this substantial part of the
> solar system. If the airport construction rate were one million each second,
> the job could just have been finished in the known lifetime of the universe
> (something over ten billion years)."[^1]

History
=======

The origins of nanotechnology, whether 'normal nanotechnology' or Molecular
Nanotechnology, are often linked to Richard Feynman's historic 1959 lecture,
*There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom*, but the origins can be traced further
back. Colin Milburn in his book *Nanovision*, for example, correctly argues that
Feynman 'merely' articulated existing ideas in the science fiction of the time.

Feynman's path to nanotechnology consisted on having remotely controlled arms
building smaller ones, successively until the nanoscale. The closest parallel to
this idea is Robert Heinlein's 1942 *Waldo*, in which a homonymous robot does
this until its copies are small enough to perform sub-cellular surgery[^2]. A
coworker at Caltech's JPL, Al Hibbs, had read the story and even filed a patent
application for the use of waldoes in space exploration. He talked it over with
Feynman and 'delighted' him with the notion of miniature surgical robots.[^3]

Mechanosynthesis of Diamondoid
==============================

Mechanosynthesis is the synthesis of chemical structures catalyzed by mechanical
pressure and constraints, or, simply, the use of mechanical force to direct and
alter the course of chemical reactions. For example, the animations to the left
show a reversible mechanosynthethic reaction in which an acetylene dimer is
placed on a diamond C(100) surface and then removed, using an atomic force
microscope with a special tip geometry.

Mechanosynthesis of diamond, specifically, is the synthesis through this
mechanical chemistry of diamond, a stiff polycyclic structure.

The evidence for mechanosynthesis can be traced back to the historic 1989
spelling of the IBM logo using 35 Xenon atoms in a surface of Nickel by Don
Eigler and Erhard K. Schweizer. However, this experiment took place a few
degrees above absolute zero, and no covalent bonds were formed.

In 2003, Oyabu et al.[^4] first demonstrated mechanosynthesis on a Silicon
surface using an atomic force microscope to remove an atom from the surface,
then place it again on the same position, again at liquid helium temperatures.

Minimal Toolset for Positional Diamond Mechanosynthesis
=======================================================

The landmark paper by Ralph Merkle and Robert Freitas, published in 2008 by the
Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience, shows a minimal set of
tools that can be used to synthesize unstrained diamond of arbitrary size, and
also synthesize *copies of itself*. Each tooltip is designed to work on a flat
surface of (Initially) Hydrogen-terminated diamond and can be moved attached to
a scanning probe microscope to control their motion. Bootstrap strategies --
Through which ordinary tools are used to produce the simplest tips, which are
then used to produce the rest of the set -- are provided, along with reaction
sequences for the construction of diamond and fullerene.

The paper is: *Robert A. Freitas Jr., Ralph C. Merkle, "A Minimal Toolset for
Positional Diamond Mechanosynthesis," J. Comput. Theor.  Nanosci. 5(May
2008):760-861;* and is available
[here](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Papers/MinToolset.pdf).


The rapid, atomically-precise construction of macroscale objects of varied
molecular structures is the eventual goal of molecular nanotechnology. The paper
presents the more modest and specific objective of ultra-high-vacuum-based
diamondoid mechanosynthesis using the positional control granted by an scanning
probe.

Following the 1992 publication of Drexler's Nanosystems, in which some basic
mechanosynthethic reaction pathways and sketches of possible tooltips, in 1997
Merkle outlined the "hydrocarbon metabolism", a set of reaction pathways for
DMS, which used nine different tooltips and several intermediate tooltips, some
of which were not defined entirely, and used at least six different elements and
one unspecified transition metal, and yet another unspecified "vitamin molecule"
possibly requiring additional elements.  Moreover, most reaction sequences were
not completely specified and reaction closure was not 100%. It did not specify
how the toolset may be constructed or what handle structures may have been
required.

The Minimal Toolset paper proposes a 100% process closure which can be achieved
using a minimal set of tools for mechanosynthesis, consisting of three primary
tools: Hydrogen Abstraction (**HAbst**), Hydrogen Donation (**HDon**), and Dimer
Placement (**DimerP**). These are assisted by six auxiliary tools, the
discharged versions of Hydrogen Abstraction (**AdamRad**) and Hydrogen Donation
(**GeRad**), and intermediate structures: Methylene (**Meth**), Germylmethylene
(**GM**), and Germylene (**Germ**). And finally, a Hydrogen Transfer tool that
is a compound form of the HAbst and GeRad tools.

Patterned Atomic Layer Epitaxy
==============================

Patterned Atomic Layer Epitaxy (PALE) consists of using a scanning tunneling
microscope on a Hydrogen-terminated Silicon surface to remove individual Hydroge
atoms. A variety of cases can be injected into the chamber, where they deposit
on the depassivated area of the surface.  [Silylene
(SiH2)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silylene), in particular, will deposit and
add a new layer to the crystal on the depassivated site.

Vertical growth is simple to achieve, but 3D, moving objects can be built using
the same method: Grow a bed of Germanium, then grow the Silicon structures on
top, and etch away the Ge to remove the structures and machines.

Books
=====

General Audience
----------------

### Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology

Eric Drexler, 1986.

By the 'father' of nanotechnology, this book describes nanotechnology as
a kind of radical biology, greatly extended in its capabilities,
efficiency and the range of products it can produce, and most
importantly, being computer-controlled. This brilliant work heralds the
new age of nanotechnology, which will give us thorough and inexpensive
control of the structure of matter. Drexler examines the enormous
implications of these developments for medicine, the economy, and the
environment, and makes astounding yet well-founded projections for the
future.

-   [Buy](http://www.amazon.com/Nanosystems-Molecular-Machinery-Manufacturing-Computation/dp/0471575186)
-   [Read online](http://e-drexler.com/p/06/00/EOC_Cover.html)

### Nanotechnology: Molecular Speculations on Global Abundance

Edited by BC Crandall, 1996.

The introductory chapter on molecular engineering, written by Crandall,
covers an impressive range of ideas and facts and introduces some novel
perspectives. He begins by explaining measurement systems and physical
scales, and then introduces atoms and molecules, giving both scientific
basics and historical perspective, and segueing into the most relevant
facts from biochemistry and molecular biology.

-   [<http://www.amazon.com/Nanotechnology-Molecular-Speculations-Global-Abundance/dp/0262531372>

Buy]

Technical
---------

### Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation

Eric Drexler, 1992.

Stepping down from the radical vision of nanotechnology in *Engines of
Creation*, Drexler began to formalize his ideas and detail them into
something falsifiable. Along with [Ralph
Merkle](Ralph Merkle "wikilink"), they designed molecular machinery and
mechanochemical processes through which those machines could be built,
basing their work on the application of the principles of mechanical
engineering to the nanoscale (With considerations, of course) and
mechanosynthesis, the synthesis of chemicals by mechanical constraints.
The properties of diamond and diamond derivatives allow it to be a very
useful and familiar building material in the otherwise largely
unfamiliar environment of the very small.

-   [Buy](http://www.amazon.com/Nanosystems-Molecular-Machinery-Manufacturing-Computation/dp/0471575186)

### Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines

Ralph Merkle, Robert Freitas, 2004.

With over 3,000 references, the book is an encyclopedic reference of all
the work done on the field of physical, self-replicating machines, by
Merkle and Freitas -- The latter is also the father of the
Self-Replicating Lunar Factory.

This book offers a general review of the voluminous theoretical and
experimental literature pertaining to physical self-replicating systems
and self-replication. The principal focus here is on self-replicating
machine systems. Most importantly, we are concerned with kinematic
self-replicating machines: systems in which actual physical objects, not
mere patterns of information, undertake their own replication. Following
a brief burst of activity in the 1950s and 1980s, the field of kinematic
replicating systems design received new interest in the 1990s with the
emerging recognition of the feasibility of molecular nanotechnology. The
field has experienced a renaissance of research activity since 1999 as
researchers have come to recognize that replicating systems are simple
enough to permit experimental laboratory demonstrations of working
devices.

*"THE standard reference in the field."* - Mark Bedau, Editor,
*Artificial Life*

-   [Buy](http://www.amazon.com/Kinematic-Self-Replicating-Machines-Robert-Freitas/dp/1570596905)
-   [Read online](http://www.molecularassembler.com/KSRM.htm)

### Diamond Surfaces and Diamond Mechanosynthesis

Robert Freitas, Ralph Merkle, in preparation.

A full analysis of how to use programmable positional assembly to
synthesize most arrangements of atoms permitted by physical law would
be, at present, prohibitively complex. A more manageable project is to
analyze a significant class of stiff hydrocarbons – in particular,
diamond – that could potentially be synthesized by the use of a small
set of positionally controlled mechanosynthetic tool tips. There is
already widespread interest in the exceptional properties of diamond
such as extreme hardness, high strength and stiffness, high thermal
conductivity, low frictional coefficient, chemical inertness, and a wide
bandgap. The molecular surface characteristics of diamond were
extensively investigated both theoretically and experimentally in the
1990s, and many practical questions about the molecular structure of
diamond surfaces have now been resolved. The fields of diamond CVD and
adamantane chemistry provide additional understanding, both experimental
and theoretical, of the myriad reaction mechanisms which can contribute
to the growth of diamond.

### Fundamentals of Nanomechanical Engineering

Robert Freitas, J. Storrs Hall, in preparation.

This course textbook, intended for use by 2nd or 3rd year college
students in advanced engineering programs, will provide a solid
grounding in the practical design of molecular scale machines composed
of rigid covalent solids, with a strong emphasis on diamond and
diamondoid materials. After an introduction to the unique aspects of
nanoscale machinery and a review of the computational tools currently
available to assist such designs, the mechanical characteristics of key
materials and the fundamentals of load, stress, stiffness, and
mechanical failure in nanoscale machinery will be explored in detail.
This will be followed by discussions and examples of specific
nanomechanical components and compound machines including bearings,
fasteners, gears, linkages, drive mechanisms, motors and pumps,
mechanical energy controllers, sensors, and programmable materials.

### Nanotechnology: Research and Perspectives

Edited by BC Crandall and James Lewis, 1992.

This book contains the proceedings from the First Foresight Conference
on Nanotechnology, held in October, 1989. The heavily illustrated volume
of gives a good overview of the various fields contributing to molecular
nanotechnology development. In addition to 18 chapters representing the
talks and panel discussions from the conference, there are two
appendices, which reprint "Machines of Inner Space", an article written
by K. Eric Drexler for the 1990 Yearbook of Science and the Future,
published by Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc, and "There's Plenty of Room
at the Bottom: An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics", a
prescient talk given by Richard Feynman in 1959 and published by
California Institute of Technology in Engineering and Science magazine
in 1960.

-   [Buy](http://www.amazon.com/Nanotechnology-Research-Perspectives-BC-Crandall/dp/0262031957)

### Prospects in Nanotechnology: Toward Molecular Manufacturing

Edited by Markus Krummenacker and James Lewis, 1995.

This book contains the proceedings from the First General Conference on
Nanotechnology: Development, Applications, and Opportunities; held in
November, 1992. It provides an accessible introduction to
nanotechnology, and to applications and progress in related fields.
There is also discussion of the funding situation, technology policy,
and hypertext as a facilitating system for social problem solving and
public debate.

-   [Buy](http://www.amazon.com/Prospects-Nanotechnology-Toward-Molecular-Manufacturing/dp/0471309141)

Resources
=========

Links
=====

**Organizations:**

-   [Zyvex](http://www.zyvex.com/)
    -   [*There's Plenty of Room at the
        Bottom*](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/feynman.html) (Vintage
        Feynman)
    -   [Zyvex's Old Nanotechnology Pages](http://www.zyvex.com/nano/)
        -   [Nanotechnology
            visuals](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/visuals.html)
        -   [Exponential
            assembly](http://www.zyvex.com/Research/exponential.html)
        -   Molecular Nanotechnology Papers:
            -   [A proposed "metabolism" for a hydrocarbon
                assembler](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/hydroCarbonMetabolism.html)
            -   [A New Family of Six Degree Of Freedom Positional
                Devices](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/6dof.html)
            -   [That’s impossible! How good scientists reach bad
                conclusions](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/impossible.html)
            -   [Implications of Molecular Nanotechnology Technical
                Performance Parameters on Previously Defined Space
                System
                Architectures](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/nano4/mckendreePaper.html)
            -   [Molecular Manufacturing: Adding Positional Control to
                Chemical
                Synthesis](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/CDAarticle.html)
        -   [DiamondCAD](http://www.zyvex.com/Research/DiamondCAD.html)
            (A real blast from the nano-past).
    -   [Zyvex Labs](http://www.zyvexlabs.com/)
        -   [Molecular Nanotechnology, a Realistic
            Treatment](http://www.zyvexlabs.com/Publications2010/WhitePapers/MolecularNanotech.html)
        -   [Atomically-precise manufacturing
            Q&A](http://www.zyvexlabs.com/Publications2010/WhitePapers/APM_Q_and_A.html)
        -   [Atomically precise manufacturing
            research](http://www.zyvexlabs.com/Research.html)
-   [Institute for Molecular Manufacturing](http://www.imm.org/)
    -   [Publications](http://www.imm.org/publications/)
    -   [Debate About Assemblers — Smalley
        Rebuttal](http://www.imm.org/publications/sciamdebate2/smalley/)
    -   [Research](http://www.imm.org/research/)
-   [Center for Responsible Nanotechnology](http://www.crnano.org/)
    -   [Nanobots not Needed](http://www.crnano.org/BD-Nanobots.htm)
    -   [*Design of a Primitive Nanofactory*
        Paper](http://jetpress.org/volume13/Nanofactory.htm#s3)
-   [Island One
    Society](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613080303/http://www.islandone.org)
    -   [Molecular Manufacturing Shortcut
        Group](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613080303/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/)
        (Man, just looking at this page is depressing
        --[Eudoxia](User:Eudoxia "wikilink") 03:12, 11 February 2012
        (UTC))
        -   *The Assembler* Magazine Issues
            -   [May,
                1994](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613111948/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/9405-news.html)
            -   [January,
                1996](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613090826/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/9601-news.html)
            -   [June,
                1996](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613091051/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/9606.html)
            -   [September,
                1996](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613090853/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/9609.html)
            -   [December,
                1996](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613091036/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/9612.html)
            -   [January-May,
                1997](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613091102/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/9701_05.html)
            -   [September,
                1997](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613091117/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/97sept/)
            -   [December,
                1997](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613090808/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/97dec.html)
            -   [January,
                1998](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613090913/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/98jan.htm)
            -   [January,
                1999](http://web.archive.org/web/20110613090951/http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/99jan.htm)
                (Interestingly, their last issue, on the last year of
                the millennium, had an article on transhumanism).
-   [Molecular Assembler site](http://www.molecularassembler.com/)
    -   [Nanofactory
        Collaboration](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Nanofactory/)
        -   [Introduction to Diamond
            Mechanosynthesis](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Nanofactory/DMS.htm)
        -   [Publications](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Nanofactory/Publications.htm)
        -   [Participants](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Nanofactory/Collab.htm)
        -   [Technical
            Challenges](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Nanofactory/Challenges.htm)
        -   [Annotated Bibliography on Diamond
            Mechanosynthesis](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Nanofactory/AnnBibDMS.htm)
        -   [*Pathway to Diamond-Based Molecular
            Manufacturing*](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Papers/PathDiamMolMfg.htm)
            (Freitas lecture, 2004)
        -   [Moriarty Grant
            Announcement](http://www.molecularassembler.com/Nanofactory/Media/PressReleaseAug08.htm)
    -   [*Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines* Book
        Site](http://www.molecularassembler.com/KSRM.htm) & Read Online
        page
-   [Foresight Institute](http://www.foresight.org)
    -   [Molecular Mechanics and Molecular Dynamics Analysis of
        Drexler-Merkle Gears and Neon
        Pump](http://www.wag.caltech.edu/foresight/foresight_1.html)
-   [NASA](http://www.nasa.gov/)
    -   [NASA Applications of Molecular
        Nanotechnology](http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/secret_projects/project212.htm)

**People:**

-   [Tom Moore's Blog](http://machine-phase.blogspot.com/)
-   [Damian Allis' Blog](http://www.somewhereville.com/)
    -   [Nano Gallery](http://www.somewhereville.com/?page_id=10)
    -   [Sander Olson interview](http://www.somewhereville.com/?p=93)
-   [Josh Storrs Hall's website](http://autogeny.org/)
    -   [Wikipedia article](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Storrs_Hall)
    -   [Interview](http://www.nanotech.biz/i.php?id=01_07_12)
    -   [Utility Fog](http://autogeny.org/Ufog.html)
-   [Institute of Atomic-Scale Engineering](http://www.iase.cc/)
    (Forrest Bishop's personal idea repository. Some good shit).
    -   [The Starseed Launcher](http://www.iase.cc/launcher.htm)
    -   [South Pole Accelerator](http://www.iase.cc/accelerator.htm)
    -   [A Description of a Universal
        Assembler](http://www.iase.cc/universal.htm)
-   [Robert Freitas' Homepage](http://rfreitas.com/)
    -   [CV](http://www.rfreitas.com/CV.htm)
    -   [250-word Bio](http://www.rfreitas.com/Bios/250-wordBio.htm)
    -   [Nanomedicine Book Site](http://www.nanomedicine.com/)
        -   [Read *Nanomedicine, Volume I: Basic Capabilities*
            Online](http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI.htm)
        -   [Read *Nanomedicine, Volume IIA: Biocompatibility*
            Online](http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMIIA.htm)
    -   [Read *Advanced Automation for Space Missions*
        Online](http://www.islandone.org/MMSG/aasm/)
    -   [Read *Xenology: An Introduction to the Scientific Study of
        Extraterrestrial Life, Intelligence, and Civilization*
        Online](http://www.xenology.info/)
    -   [Nanomedicine Art
        Gallery](http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/Gallery/index.html)
        -   [*Ballad of the
            Respirocyte*](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whicQnblyGE)
-   [Eric Drexler's Site](http://e-drexler.com/)
    -   [Blog](http://metamodern.com/)
-   [Next Big Future Blog](http://nextbigfuture.com/)
    -   [Tag:
        'Nanotechnology'](http://nextbigfuture.com/search/label/nanotechnology)
    -   [Tag: 'Bootstrapping
        Nanotechnology'](http://nextbigfuture.com/search/label/bootstrapping%20nanotechnology)
    -   [Tag: 'DNA
        Nanotechnology'](http://nextbigfuture.com/search/label/DNA%20nanotechnology)
    -   [Tag: 'Atomically Precise
        Manufacturing'](http://nextbigfuture.com/search/label/atomically%20precise%20manufacturing)
    -   [Article on
        Polyyne](http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/09/44-carbon-atoms-of-polyyne-carbon-made.html)
    -   [Article: *Eric Drexler, Ralph Merkle or Robert Freitas Are not
        to Blame When Billions spent on Ordinary Chemistry Was called
        Nanotechnology Work- You Got What You Paid
        For*](http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/09/eric-drexler-ralph-merkle-or-robert.html)
-   [Accelerating Future](http://acceleratingfuture.com/)
    -   [NIST Warms Up to Drexlerian
        Nanotechnology](http://www.acceleratingfuture.com/michael/blog/2008/04/nist-warms-up-to-drexlerian-nanotechnology/)
    -   ['Future Current'
        Blog](http://www.acceleratingfuture.com/people-blog/)
        -   [Diamond
            Mechanosynthesis](http://www.acceleratingfuture.com/people-blog/2007/mechanosynthesis/)
            (Trascript of the [Mechanosynthesis Lecture by Merkle and
            Freitas](http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=362294862840163667))
-   [Ralph Merkle's Homepage](http://merkle.com/)
    -   [Papers](http://www.merkle.com/merkleDir/papers.html)
    -   [*On Mechanosynthesis* Lecture
        transcript](http://www.acceleratingfuture.com/people-blog/2008/on-mechanosynthesis/)
    -   [Mechanosynthesis Lecture by Merkle and
        Freitas](http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=362294862840163667)

**Opinion, Politics & Websites:**

-   [Nanosocialist
    manifesto](http://web.archive.org/web/20061225060622/http://www.cas.sc.edu/engl/faculty/berube/nanosoc.htm)
-   [Nanotechnology and the arrival of the Diamond
    Age](http://www.dse.nl/~hkl/e_nano1.htm) by Henry Kluytmans.
-   [The Nano Age](http://www.thenanoage.com/) (Actually a very good
    resource).
    -   [Molecular
        manufacturing](http://thenanoage.com/molecular-manufacturing.htm)
    -   [Nanotechnology
        Demistified](http://thenanoage.com/nanotechnology-demystified.htm)
    -   [Carbon: The Wonder
        Element](http://www.thenanoage.com/carbon.htm)
    -   Nanomedicine Pages:
        -   [Clottocytes page](http://thenanoage.com/clottocytes.htm)
        -   [Microbivores](http://thenanoage.com/microbivores.htm)
        -   [Respirocytes](http://www.thenanoage.com/respirocytes.htm)

**Space:**

-   [Via Nanotechnology to the
    Stars](http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=96)

**Software:**

-   [Amoeba: A Simulator for Molecular
    Nanotechnology](http://www.digitalspace.com/papers/nanopap1.html)
-   [Crystal
    Sketchpad](http://goanna.cs.rmit.edu.au/~gl/research/nano/crystal.html)
    -   [Executable](http://goanna.cs.rmit.edu.au/~gl/research/nano/CrystalSketchpad/program/cs.tar.gz)
        (SGI only, lol)


References
==========

[^1]: Kenneth W. Ford, "The Large and the Small," in Timothy Ferris, ed., The
    World Treasury of Physics, Astronomy, and Mathematics (Boston: Little, Brown
    and Company, 1991), 22. First published in *Kenneth W. Ford, The World of
    Elementary Particles* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958).

[^2]: *Waldo (short story)*. **Wikipedia**.
    [Link](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldo_(short_story)#The_waldo).

[^3]: Ed Regis. *Nano: The Emerging Science of Nanotechnology*. June
    1995.

[^4]: Noriaki Oyabu, Oscar Custance, Insook Yi, Yasuhiro Sugawara, Seizo
    Morita, “Mechanical vertical manipulation of selected single atoms
    by soft nanoindentation using near contact atomic force microscopy,”
    Phys. Rev. Lett. 90(2 May 2003):176102;
    [abstract](http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v90/i17/e176102), [APS
    story](http://physics.aps.org/story/v11/st19).