[p2p-research] On cooperative games

[Paul D. Fernhout]

Michel-

As per your request, towards a P2P blog entry.

A key aspect of P2P is cooperation. How do we know cooperation is important? 
The value of cooperation may seem obvious to some, but is still counter the 
mainstream culture in a place like the USA. Then, how can we learn how to 
cooperate better?

Here is a book by Alfie Kohn that tells us why cooperation is important, 
with many connections to the scientific literature in the text:
   "No Contest: The Case Against Competition"
   http://www.amazon.com/No-Contest-Case-Against-Competition/dp/0395631254
"Contending that competition in all areas -- school, family, sports and 
business -- is destructive, and that success so achieved is at the expense 
of another's failure, Kohn, a correspondent for USA Today, advocates a 
restructuring of our institutions to replace competition with cooperation. 
He persuasively demonstrates how the ingrained American myth that 
competition is the only normal and desirable way of life -- from Little 
Leagues to the presidency -- is counterproductive, personally and for the 
national economy, and how psychologically it poisons relationships, fosters 
anxiety and takes the fun out of work and play. He charges that competition 
is a learned phenomenon and denies that it builds character and self-esteem. 
Kohn's measures to encourage cooperation in lieu of competition include 
promoting noncompetitive games, eliminating scholastic grades and 
substitution of mutual security for national security."

Now that we have a reference to some scientific evidence that cooperation is 
important and competition is harmful, how can we learn to cooperate better? 
Well, practicing cooperation is a good place to start. One way to do that is 
through games that emphasize cooperation.

Playing with blocks or Lego together can a cooperative game (and an 
open-ended one with just *intrinsic* rewards). So can, say, writing and 
performing an impromptu theatrical play.

But sometimes people want more structured activities for whatever reasons.

Here is a small company in Canada that makes and sells cooperative board games:
   http://www.familypastimes.com/
   http://www.familypastimes.com/together.html
"""
Play as friends, not as enemies! Our games foster the spirit of 
co-operation. Players help each other climb a mountain, make a community, 
bring in the harvest, complete a space exploration... They are never against 
each other.
   After all, the initial impulse to play a game is social; that is, we 
bring out a game because we want to do something together. How ironic then 
that in most games, we spend all our efforts trying to bankrupt someone, 
destroy their armies — in other words, to get rid of one another! We soon 
learn how to pick on the other person's weaknesses in order to win the game.
"""

They have a book related to cooperative games:
   "Co-op Games Manual"
   http://www.familypastimes.com/Books/gamesmanual.html
"This softcover book includes over 170 co-op games and activities for ages 3 
to 12+. Little or no equipment is required. For small and large groups, from 
pre-schoolers through primary ages and also junior high level. Play these 
games in open spaces such as a farm, park or street, or the indoor spaces of 
a home living room, a school classroom, gym, etc. Try a co-op birthday 
party, co-op recess time, even a co-op play day."

Here is another book on cooperative games by another author, with a free 
download:

   "Guide to Cooperative Games for Social Change"
   http://www.freechild.org/gamesguide.htm
"""
Everyday  in communities around the world, youth activists, youth workers 
and educators are looking for powerful, purposeful activities that can 
change the world. At the same time, young people want to connect with adults 
in powerful relationships where they can actually change the world. The 
Guide to Cooperative Games for Social Change  provides a resource for people 
who want more from youth activities.
   The Guide features a powerful introduction to cooperative games, 
carefully detailing their relevance for activists and educators. It 
continues to provide clear, concise summaries of more than two dozen 
activities, including icebreakers, "funners," and closers. Each description 
details exactly how the activity can be facilitated, as well as the 
equipment, time, and space needed.
   Since 2003 this document has been downloaded more than 10,000 times from 
The Freechild Project website. This revision features a clean, crisp layout 
and a fast download. Also, for the first time Freechild's parent 
organization offers print versions of this booklet for practitioners.
    Download: http://www.commonaction.org/gamesguide.pdf
"""

Here is an example from that book:
"""
Human Scissors, Paper, Rock
Props: None
Purpose: Fun, energy-building
  Procedure: This is the human-size version of scissors/paper/rock. The end 
zones need  to be clearly defined. To begin, each team huddles and decides 
on which play to run- either rock, paper or scissors. Then the two teams 
meet in the playing area. If your team’s symbol wins, you chase the other 
team back into its end zone, trying to tag the team members before they get 
there. If your team’s symbol loses, you must dash back to your own end zone 
before you’re caught. Those people who get caught change to the other team. 
The game ends when everyone is on the same team.
"""

Here is another book on cooperative games, from the 1970s, described in an 
article with information on a few of the games.
   "Playfair: A sampling of cooperative games" by Matt Weinstein & Joel Goodman
   http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC13/Playfair.htm
"THE POSSIBILITIES FOR COOPERATIVE PLAY ARE VAST. In our book, we describe 
over sixty different games and activities we use in our PLAYFAIRS, and those 
sixty are just a small corner of a very large field. We don't have space for 
anything like that here, but we would like to share six of these games to 
give you a flavor for what is possible."

Sometimes, one can take an existing board game or social game, and with a 
little creativity think about how to change the rules so it is more 
cooperative. Generally you will know you succeeded if everyone is laughing 
together instead of frowning at each other in intense concentration about 
how to win just for themselves. :-) A related issue about games and 
cooperation is the difference between "finite" and "infinite" games.
   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_and_Infinite_Games
"In short, a finite game is played with the purpose of winning (thus ending 
the game), while an infinite game is played with the purpose of continuing 
the play."

For example, a game of volleyball involves sending a ball over a net back 
and forth between two teams. In the standard version, each team is trying to 
score points by tricking the opposing team into dropping the ball is a 
finite game. A game of volleyball where you see how long both sides can keep 
volleying without anyone dropping the ball is closer to an infinite game 
(and, is likely a much more cooperative one, where you would not knowingly 
put the ball in a place the opposite team can not easily reach it). It is 
true however that many standard team sports may have elements of both 
cooperation (help your team) and competition (win against the other side). 
Alfie Kohn tends to think even such sports have problems; people can decide 
for themselves whether they agree.

Here are two Google searches one can do to learn more:
   http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&source=hp&q=cooperative+games
   http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&source=hp&q=making+games+cooperative

--Paul Fernhout
http://www.pdfernhout.net/