planar lens linear transform optics (lenses and prisms) dot-production optics (photomasks) convolution optics (diffusers and some phase-plates) fresnel liquid crystal lens latex microsphere lens varifocal liquid lens variable-focus lens flat microscope objective cylindrical lens one-to-many optical-interconnects (OTM-OI) Optofluidic compound lenses made with ionic liquids 40 lines/mm Optofluidic tunable microlens by manipulating the liquid meniscus using a flared microfluidic structure Experimental far-field imaging properties of a ~5-μm diameter spherical lens Microscale lenses are mostly used as near-sighted lenses. The far-field imaging properties of a microscale spherical lens, where the lens is spatially separated from the object, are experimentally studied. Our experimental results show that, for a blu-ray disc (an object) whose spacing is 300 nm, the lens can magnify the stripe patterns of the disc when the lens is spatially separated from the object. In the experimentally tested range (0–14 μm), all the magnified images are virtual images. When the distance is increased from 0 to 14 μm the magnification decreases from 1.47× to 1.20× and the field of view increases from 3.8 to 12.2 μm. The image magnification cannot be described by standard geometrical optics. Experimental imaging properties of immersion microscale spherical lenses ;;break Immersion lithography fluids for high NA 193 nm lithography Immersion lithography has become attractive since it can reduce critical dimensions by increasing numerical aperture (NA) beyond unity. Among all the candidates for immersion fluids, those with higher refractive indices are desired. However, for many of the fluids, the strong absorption at 193nm becomes a serious problem. Therefore, it is essential to find a fluid that is transparent enough (with absorbance less than 0.5mm-1) and has high refractive index (above water, 1.44) at 193nm. Characterization of various fluid candidates has been performed and the absorbance of these fluids has been measured. To measure the absolute refractive index, a prism deviation angle method was developed. This method offers the possibility of measuring fluid refractive indices accurately. This paper also presents the obtained refractive indices of these fluids. Several candidates have been identified for 193nm application with refractive indices near 1.55, which is about 0.1 higher than that of water at this wavelength. Cauchy parameters of these fluids were generated and approaches were investigated to tailor the fluid absorption edges to be close to 193nm. The effects of these fluids on photoresist performance were also examined with 193nm immersion lithography exposure at various NA's. 1.5 NA was obtained to image 32nm lines with phosphoric acid as the immersion medium. These fluids are potential candidates for immersion lithography technology. ;;break Reflective high-NA projection lenses dioptric projection lens (refraction) catadioptric objective lenses (defraction) The development of dioptric projection lenses for DUV lithography Advanced dioptric projection lenses from Carl Zeiss are used in some of the world's most advanced deep ultraviolet projection lithography systems. These lenses provide a resolution of better than 100 nm across the entire field of view with a level of aberration control that maximizes critical dimension uniformity and lithographic process latitude. These dioptric projection lenses are currently being used for critical layer device patterning for a wide array of complex logic, memory, and application specific integrated circuits. Zeiss' involvement in the develop of ultraviolet lenses goes back to the year 1902, exactly 100 years ago, when Moritz von Rohr calculated the first monochromatic ultraviolet micro-objectives for ultra-high resolution microphotography using a line-narrowed source. The modern dioptric projection lenses for lithography are influenced by the collective experience in the field of microscopy, and the more recent experience with early step-and-repeat lenses. This paper discusses some of the foundations of modern dioptric designs in the context of this history, demonstrating that rapid synthesis of designs is possbile using combinations of monochromatic microscope objectives and early step-and-repeat lenses from the 1970's. The problems associated with ultra high numerical aperture objectives are discussed. Specifically, it is demonstrated that aspheres can be used effective to reduce the volume of full field projection lenses, making the mechanical implementation of a 0.90 NA lens feasible in production. Several contemporary dioptric projection lens designs are reviewed in detail. The extension of these designs to numerical apertures greater than 1.0 using immersion techniques is demonstrated. These immersion lenses give the potential for 40 nm resolution. Use of diffractive optical elements in lithographic projection lenses Design and simulation of diffractive optical components in fast optical imaging systems Recent lithographic technologies allow for the fabrication of high period diffractive structures on planar and curved optical surfaces with high precision. Such diffractive surfaces offer the optical designer extra degrees of freedom, which are of special importance for optical systems, where light collection efficiency is important. We illustrate the usage and benefit of diffractive elements within fast optical systems in various applications. For these hybrid design classes it is mandatory to include the realistic as-built performance of the employed diffractive elements into the design phase. Correspondingly we present simulation techniques to include fabrication specific diffraction efficiencies and stray light into the optimization and evaluation process. Hyper numerical aperture imaging lens using a thin multi reflection Catadioptric optical element Several state-of-the-art imaging applications require a large operational spectral band, a large field size, and a high numerical aperture (NA). The design of a lens that simultaneously meets these requirements is a challenging task. We present optical designs of hyper NA imaging systems that comprise a multi reflection optical element. Light entering this element reflects multiple times before exiting. The present lens designs are 1.65 NA imaging system that operate in the broad spectral band [486.1 ~656.3 nm], have field size of 1.75 mm, and 20X magnification. Ultra-high-performance microscope objectives: the state of the art in design, manufacturing, and testing ;;break http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction-limited_system Considering green light around 500 nm and a NA of 1, the Abbe limit is roughly d = λ/2 = 250 nm which is large compared to most nanostructures or biological cells which have sizes on the order of 1 μm and internal organelles which are much smaller. ;;break Pixel-based defect detection from high-NA optical projection images Abstract: Reconstruction of sub-wavelength defects from measured images of high-NA-projection systems is demonstrated. The considered structure consists of a few small unknown defects in an otherwise known mask layout. The footprint of the defect, which is the measured or simulated difference between images of masks with and without defect, is used to reconstruct the position, shape and intensity of the defect. The requirement is that the few unknown defects are sparsely located in the known mask layout. The technique relies on the cost function and an appropriate optimizer. The dependency of the reconstruction results on defect sizes and types of defects are presented. Moreover, the sensitivity of the technique to noise is investigated. ;;break 1/8 μm optical lithography The critical bottleneck to extending optical lithography down to the 1/8 μm level is the performance of the projection optics. The Markle–Dyson configuration is virtually free of all geometric and chromatic aberrations. A prototype system has been constructed and characterized. The system uses 248 nm light from a mercury arc lamp at a numerical aperture of 0.7. 0.25 μm resolution has been demonstrated with non phase shifting masks: using phase shifting Levenson‐type masks, a grating consisting of 0.125 μm lines and spaces has been printed. Two possible extensions of the existing design are proposed which would allow general 1/8 μm geometries to be patterned. The first is a 0.7 numerical aperture(NA) system working at a wavelength of 157 nm, and the second is a 1.05 NA immersion system working at 193 nm. At these high NAs the depth‐of‐focus (DOF) of the image becomes very small if a clear aperture is used. However, if the aperture is apodized, the DOF can be increased considerably, and a procedure for optimizing apodization functions has been devised. This makes it possible to consider high NA optical techniques as candidates worthy of further investigation for 1/8 μm lithography. Focal plane determination for sub-half micron optical steppers Cylindrical micro-optics The process of forming cylindrical glass microlenses drawn from a precisely shaped preform provides optical engineers and designers a novel source of miniaturized optical components with very high numerical aperture and diffraction-limited performance. Because of these characteristics, and because of the inherent anamorphic nature of cylindrical optics, drawn microlenses are ideally suited for use with most laser diodes. The technology has evolved during the past couple of years to the point that laser diodes products incorporating these microlenses are now available commercially, and they are beginning to be incorporated into commercial instruments. In this paper we review the current status of drawn cylindrical microlenses, and discuss some novel applications being developed.