google.visualization.Query.setResponse({version:'0.5',reqId:'1',status:'ok',table:{cols:[{id:'col0',label:'ref',type:'number'},{id:'col1',label:'t',type:'string'},{id:'col2',label:'det',type:'string'},{id:'col3',label:'nl',type:'string'},{id:'col4',label:'sd',type:'string'},{id:'col5',label:'latlong',type:'string'}],rows:[{c:[{v:42.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 6 thalamic projecting'},{v:'Cortical C6t cells have a neuroanatomical organization highly linked to Ts projections. C6t cells send both apical dendrite and intracortical axon projections to layer 3b in the isocortex(Jones \46 Wise, 1977; Peters et al., 1997; Lund et al., 1981; Rockland \46 Ichinohe, 2004) and layer 4 in koniocortex(Briggs \46 Callaway, 2001). The C6t cell projections leaving the cortex target local regions of the Ts in a reciprocal manner(Giguere \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1988; McFarland \46 Haber, 2002; Catsman-Berrevoets \46 Kuypers, 1978; Trojanowski \46 Jacobson, 1977; Asanuma et al., 1985). Note the anatomical reentrant blueprint specifying that C6t intracortical axons/dendrites target the same cortical layer receiving Ts projections.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_pyramidal_cell_layer_5-6\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C6t appears to function in conjunction with C3b and Ts to facilitate cortico-thalamocortical oscillations.'},{v:'82.129914, -128.492728'}]},{c:[{v:43.0},{v:'Basket Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Basket cells form the majority of interneurons, named for the basket like shape of synapses they form around the soma of pyramidal neurons(Cajal, 2002). Basket cells are typically fast spiking, parvalbumin staining, soma targeting, and have their highest densities between middle layer 3 and upper layer 5(Zaitsev et al., 2005; Lund \46 Lewis, 1993). Basket cells are often further differentiated by the size and or curvature of their often long (∼100s μm) horizontal axonal arborization(Zaitsev et al., 2009; Lund et al., 1993).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_basket_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'82.298843, -136.764412'}]},{c:[{v:24.0},{v:'Claustrum'},{v:'The claustrum is located midway between layer 6 of insular cortex (from which it breaks off early in brain development) and the striatum. Debate is ongoing on whether the claustrum’s developmental origin is cortical, striatal, or a hybrid(Edelstein \46 Denaro, 2004). Projections from the claustrum target nearly the entire brain, with little segregation of projections in the claustrum(Tanne-Gariepy et al., 2002). Claustrum projections travel through the external capsule and appear slightly biased to cognitive and cortical control centers of the brain(Molnar et al., 2006). The projections from the claustrum terminate mostly in layer 4 and appear to preferentially target inhibitory neurons, possibly chandelier cells with axoaxonic terminals(LeVay, 1986; LeVay \46 Sherk, 1981).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Claustrum\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the claustrum appears to integrate cortical information from C6m neurons and provide feedforward excitatory input to inhibitory neurons in L4 of the cerebral cortex.'},{v:'79.169332, -101.578756'}]},{c:[{v:25.0},{v:'Spinal cord'},{v:'In all vertebrates, motor neurons in the spinal chord project acetylcholine onto muscles to make them contract(Lieber, 2002; Striedter, 2005). In higher mammals projections from large neurons in lower layer 5 (C5p) of primary motor cortex directly target alpha motor neurons in the spinal chord(Stanfield, 1992). Lesions to primary motor cortex in the human cause complete paralysis of the body associated with the cortical lesion(Penfield \46 Rasmussen, 1968).The direct projection to the spinal chord is weak in lower mammals, but becomes increasingly prominent in primates, and presumably dominates in humans, suggesting an increasingly more direct cortical involvement in behavior(Lemon \46 Griffiths, 2005).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Spinal_cord\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'79.295231, -108.353223'}]},{c:[{v:26.0},{v:'Globus pallidus internal segment / Substantia nigra pars reticulata'},{v:'The Gpi/Snr is the source of the major GABAergic output from the basal ganglia. The Gpi and Snr are physically separated nuclei, with the Snr located adjacent to the Snc (hence the naming convention). However, from a neuroanatomical perspective these structures are functionally equivalent. The Gpi/Snr receives afferent input from all other basal ganglia nuclei, including the matrix striatum(M. Levesque \46 Parent, 2005; Haber et al., 1990), the Gpe(Sato et al., 2000), the STN(J. C. Levesque \46 Parent, 2005), and collateral projections from the Snc(Charara \46 Parent, 1994; Zhou et al., 2009). The Gpi/Snr is tonically active(Zhou et al., 2009) and projects onto the intralaminar tha¬lamus in a topographic pattern(M. Parent \46 Parent, 2004; M. Parent et al., 2001; Sidibe et al., 2002). The Gpi/Snr also send significant projections onto the ventral thalamus including TL1(Sidibe et al., 1997; Hazrati \46 Parent, 1991a).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Globus_pallidus_internal_segment\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the Gpi/Snr appears to perform precise temporal action triggering in the intralaminar and ventral thalamus through disinhibition.'},{v:'77.587668, -131.104898'}]},{c:[{v:27.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 5/6 cortically projecting'},{v:'Neurons in the lower layers of the cerebral cortex are the most diverse, but are differentiable based on the targets of their projections. We use the term C56 to group the cortical neurons in the infragranular layers of the isocortex that dominantly project corticocortically(Soloway et al., 2002; Lima et al., 1990; Tanigawa et al., 1998). The C56 neurons often have a spindle shape and appear to lack major dendritic tufts above layer 5a(Lima et al., 1990). The intracortical supragranular projections appear more extensive in layers 2 and 3a(Levitt et al., 1993), with distant horizontal projections in layers 5/6(Tardif et al., 2007). The C56 group are the dominant source of intercortical projections to layer 1 and 2 of ipsilateral cortices (Figure 3)(Rockland \46 Drash, 1996; Barbas, Hilgetag, et al., 2005; Medalla \46 Barbas, 2006).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_pyramidal_cell_layer_5-6\47\76Neurolex entry\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C56 appears to function as corticocortical feedback output system.'},{v:'81.870664, -154.898681'}]},{c:[{v:20.0},{v:'Pons'},{v:'The pons receives nearly all its afferent projections from the isocortex and sends nearly all its efferent output to the cerebellum(Brodal \46 Bjaalie, 1992). This close relationship is demonstrated by the tight correlated volumetric evolution between the pons and cerebral cortex across species. The pons accounting for 6% of the brainstem in prosimians, 11-21% in monkeys and 37% in humans(Brodal \46 Bjaalie, 1992). As discussed, the pons receives its cortical projection from the C5p cells from the entire cerebral cortex(Glickstein et al., 1985; Brodal, 1978; Leichnetz et al., 1984). The pons then continues to project topographically onto the cerebellum(Kelly \46 Strick, 2003).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Pons\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the pons integrates and transmits cortically evoked C5p output to the cerebellum. The cerebellum appears to be a control system for fine tuning and stabilizing sequences of movement and cognitive behaviors through the ventral thalamus.'},{v:'77.247912, -106.484677'}]},{c:[{v:21.0},{v:'Deep Cerebellar Nuclei'},{v:'The output of the DCN is an excitatory glutamatergic projection targeting predominantly the ventral thalamus(Sakai et al., 1996). The cortico-cerebellar-thalamocortical circuit results in closed loop topographic projections to wide areas of the frontal, temporal, and parietal cortices(LeVay \46 Sherk, 1981; Kelly \46 Strick, 2003).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Deep_cerebellar_nuclear_complex\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the pons integrates and transmits cortically evoked C5p output to the cerebellum. The cerebellum appears to be a control system for fine tuning and stabilizing sequences of movement and cognitive behaviors through the ventral thalamus.'},{v:'76.701662, -102.122826'}]},{c:[{v:22.0},{v:'Cerebellum'},{v:'The output of the cerebellum arises from inhibitory purkinje cells that target the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN)(Ramnani, 2006). Therefore, like the basal ganglia, the cerebellum functions on the principle of disinhibition. A detailed cerebellum review is useful for under¬standing the internal cerebellar circuitry(Voogd, 2003).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Cerebellum\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the pons integrates and transmits cortically evoked C5p output to the cerebellum. The cerebellum appears to be a control system for fine tuning and stabilizing sequences of movement and cognitive behaviors through the ventral thalamus.'},{v:'77.051090, -93.169956'}]},{c:[{v:23.0},{v:'Basal Forebrain'},{v:'Acetylcholine is found in primarily three populations of neurons in the brain: alpha-motor neurons, interneurons in the striatum, and the basal forebrain including the nucleus of Meynert(Satoh \46 Fibiger, 1985). Basal forebrain lesions ’abolish cortical plasticity associated with motor skill learning’(Conner et al., 2003). Large lesions of the basal forebrain in the rat have resulted in deep coma consistent with the disruption of behavioral output(Fuller et al., 2011). Acetylcholinesterase staining typically stains layer 1 of most cortices, therefore the BF projection appears to primarily target layer 1 of most of the cortex(Bigl et al., 1982). In monkey and human cortex, C3b and C5p neurons appear to preferentially stain for acetylcholinesterase suggesting a prominent utilization of acetylcholine(Hackett et al., 2001; Bravo \46 Karten, 1992; Voytko et al., 1992).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Basal_forebrain\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the basal forebrain appears to provide cholinergic input to the cerebral cortex to learn and activate an output behavior mapping between C3b and C5p neurons.'},{v:'79.365467, -95.699470'}]},{c:[{v:44.0},{v:'Intracortical projections'},{v:'Intracortical projections are horizontal corticocortical projections traveling within the grey matter of the cerebral cortex(Kritzer \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1995). Although all pyramidal neurons have connections within the cerebral cortex, the prominent source of distant intracortical projections arise mainly from pyramidal neurons within layers 2 and 3, and a sub-set of neurons in layers 5 and 6. The intracortical terminations of C3a and C3b pyramidal neurons are not distributed uniformly, but form patchy or stripe-like patterns of termination which comprise areas up to 20mm2 in the monkey(Levitt et al., 1993; Pucak et al., 1996; Fujita \46 Fujita, 1996; Lima et al., 1990). Neurons in each layer appear to project horizontally, then the stripe-like terminations (spaced a few 100μm apart) arise out of vertical collaterals. The laminar specificity and development of these corticocortical striped projections is largely activity dependent(Price et al., 2006). In the monkey, 50% of pyramidal neuron synaptic contacts, within its local stripe (roughly its dendritic tree size), are onto GABAergic inhibitory neurons, while more than 90% of synaptic contacts outside a pyramidal neurons local stripe are onto other pyramidal neurons(Melchitzky et al., 2001). The intracortical organization is suggestive that a functional module (∼10’s mm2) in the isocortex is much larger than the traditional cortical minicolumn (∼100’s μm2)(Buxhoeveden \46 Casanova, 2002; Mountcastle, 2003; Rockland \46 Ichinohe, 2004).'},{v:''},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, an organization appears to exist where cell assemblies form intracortically in functional modules within select layers to encode perceptions.'},{v:'84.521579, -162.295363'}]},{c:[{v:28.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 3a cortically projecting'},{v:'C3a pyramidal neurons, of typical pyramidal shape, are distinguishable from layer 2 in isocortex because of their increased size and sparsity. In layer 3a the distance of intracortical horizontal projections increase into stripe like patches(Fujita \46 Fujita, 1996; Melchitzky et al., 2001; Lund et al., 1993). C3a cells often have long horizontal projections in lower layer 3b(Kritzer \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1995). C3a cells are the dominant source of intercortical projections to layer 4 of ipsilateral cortices (Figure 3)(Barbas, Hilgetag, et al., 2005; DeFelipe et al., 1986; Medalla \46 Barbas, 2006; Rockland, 1992).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Layer_3_Pyramidal_Neuron\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C3a appears to function as a corticocortical feedforward output system.'},{v:'83.892072, -146.814992'}]},{c:[{v:29.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 2 cortically projecting'},{v:'Layer 2 is referred to as the outer granular layer because of its similar granular structure as layer 4. The C2 neurons are small pyramidal neurons with local horizontal projections mostly to layer 2 and to layer 3(Barbas, Hilgetag, et al., 2005; Tanigawa et al., 1998; Soloway et al., 2002). Layer 2 is a primary target of ipsilateral feedback type cortical projections (Figure 3). The granular similarity of layer 2 to layer 4 implies a similar input architecture for feedback projections. C2 receives feedback input and propagates information horizontally and down to C3a and C3b, with upper layer 5 being the focus of infragranular projections(Kritzer \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1995).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_pyramidal_cell_layer_2-3\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C2 appears to function as corticocortical feedback input system.'},{v:'84.223447, -152.188791'}]},{c:[{v:40.0},{v:'Double Bouquet Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Double bouquet cells express calretinin and have vertically projecting dendrites and axons that span across layers that are direct sources of inter-layer feed-forward or feed-back projections(Lund \46 Lewis, 1993; Conde et al., 1994; Zaitsev et al., 2009). Bi-tufted neurons have similar dendritic and axonal organization.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_bouquet_double_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'83.713192, -111.388660'}]},{c:[{v:41.0},{v:'Cortical layer 6 claustrum projecting'},{v:'The claustrum receives projections from virtually the entire cortex in a topographic, but largely overlapped fashion(Pearson et al., 1982). The projections from cortex originate from C6m neurons, which are distinct from C6t neurons in the cat(Katz, 1987). Apical dendrites of these neurons typically arborize directly below layer 4 in the upper part of layer 5(Soloway et al., 2002; No, 1943). Occasionally collaterals of C5s neurons are found in the claustrum(M. Parent \46 Parent, 2006).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_pyramidal_cell_layer_5-6\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C6m appears to function in coordination with C5s neurons to integrate action suggestions for transmission to the claustrum.'},{v:'81.341635, -101.534768'}]},{c:[{v:1.0},{v:'Cortical Layer 1'},{v:'Layer 1 of the cerebral cortex, referred to as the molecular layer, lies closest to the pial surface of the brain. The only neurons in L1 are inhibitory Cajal-Retzius cells containing long horizontal axons(Cajal, 2002; Gabbott \46 Bacon, 1996; Conde et al., 1994). L1 is composed of a dense plexus of dendritic tufts of pyramidal neurons combined with axons from cortical and subcortical origin. Many non-glutamate neurotransmitters systems (serotoninergic, adrenergic, cholinergic) appear to target the lower portions of layer 1(Eickhoff et al., 2007). The dense plexus of dendrites in L1 provides the opportunity for a given axon terminating in L1 to effect pyramidal neurons throughout all layers. The cortical pyramidal neurons consistently demonstrating prominent L1 apical dendritic tufts are C2, C3a, C3b, C5s, and C5p.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_layer_1\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, cortical layer 1 appears to be a plexus of dendrites and axons where a single axon projection can easily influence or activate multiple pyramidal neurons in different cortical layers to control a functional module.'},{v:'84.301458, -173.165633'}]},{c:[{v:0.0},{v:'Intercortical projections'},{v:'Intercortical circuits involve the large white matter corticocortical fiber tracts of the brain (Schmahmann \46 Pandya, 2006). Fiber tracts connect multiple distant cortical areas and subcortical nuclei with a great deal of specificity. The topology of corticocortical projections are the primary focus of the Human Connectome Project and CoCoMac(Marcus et al., 2011; Kotter, 2004). Contralateral corticocortical projections tend to connect the same spatial regions on opposite sides of the brain, while ipsilateral connections often connect distant areas on the same side(Barbas, Hilgetag, et al., 2005). Different populations of pyramidal neurons tend to project contralaterally (lower layer 3b) as opposed to ipsilaterally (upper layer 3a and layers 5/6)(Soloway et al., 2002). The cytoarchitectonics of the human cerebral cortex, as determined by von Economo, show the laminar pattern of a given area of cortex can generally fit within one of five fundamental types of cortical structure Figure 3(c)(Economo, 1929; A. Walker, 1940). The pattern of projections between two cortical areas, as determined by Barbas in the monkey, shows a pattern of neuron layer origin and layer termination based on the dierence between the two types of cortices as shown in Figure 3(d)(Barbas, 1986; Barbas \46 Rempel-Clower, 1997; Rempel-Clower \46 Barbas, 2000; Barbas, Medalla, et al., 2005; Rockland, 1992; Medalla \46 Barbas, 2006; Van Essen, 2005). When von Economo and Barbas\47 research is aligned, as they are for the first time here, we arrive at rough laminar projection predictions between cortical areas in the human brain. If a projection originates in a more granular (e.g. type 4, Figure 3-orange) cortical area and terminates in a less granular (e.g. type 3, Figure 3-green) cortical area, the cells of origin are predominantly in layer 3, while synaptic terminals are in layer 4 with collaterals in layers 5,6 (feedforward projection). The majority of projections in the cerebral cortex are feedforward and originate in layers 2/3. If the projection is reversed, projection neurons reside mostly in layer 5, some in 6, and project to layers 1 and 2 with collaterals in layer 3 (feedback projection). In visual areas, this pattern of projections has been correlated with the functional hierarchy of the cortical area(Felleman \46 Van Essen, 1991). The neuroanatomical architecture of a given cortical region appears to be the predictor of its functional relationship to other cortical areas. Historical note: Barbas does not mention or cite von Economo in her papers in conjunction with the five types of cortical laminar patterns. The five types of laminar patterns in the monkey originated in 1947 when von Bonin adopted/translated von Economo\47s human work into the monkey(Bonin \46 Bailey, 1947). Since that time, the correlation between humans and monkeys appears to have been lost in the literature. Figure 3 is designed to illustrate the correlation between the original von Economo human study and Barbas\47 monkey experiments performed 60 years later. The correlation adds additional significance to Barbas\47 original cortical projection research in the monkey(Barbas, 1986).'},{v:''},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, cell assembly to cell assembly associations form intercortically in a hierarchical layer dependent feedforward/feedback network.'},{v:'84.833525, -171.405633'}]},{c:[{v:3.0},{v:'Martinotti Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Martinotti cells express calbindin and are unique in that they send a vertically projecting axon that arborizes horizontally in layer 1(Conde et al., 1994; Zaitsev et al., 2009).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_Martinotti_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'81.402258, -160.384304'}]},{c:[{v:2.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 4 cortically projecting'},{v:'Layer 4 is referred to as the inner granular layer, not for any particular cell type, but due to the visual appearance of small neurons stained in Nissl preparations. Layer 4, of all cortices, appears to be an input for feedforward type projections. In isocortex, layer 4 is the primary target of ipsilateral corticocortical feedforward cortical projections(Figure 3)(Barbas, Hilgetag, et al., 2005; DeFelipe et al., 1986; Medalla \46 Barbas, 2006; Rockland, 1992; Felleman \46 Van Essen, 1991). Since primary sensory koniocortex is the anatomically closest cortex to raw sensory input, other cortical areas can not provide feedforward input. Instead, in koniocortices, the specific thalamus provides the feedforward projection into layer 4. In primary motor cortex layer 4 is essentially non-existent, highlighting the diminished need for feedforward input to cortical areas involved in output behavior. The cortical pyramidal neurons in layer 4, C4, typically have a descending and an ascending axon that arborize locally (\0741mm)(Kritzer \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1995). The ascending axon reaches all supragranular layers upwards of layer 2. Descending axons do not prominently exit the cortex as with most other pyramidal cells. Only in primary sensory areas, and especially in primary visual cortex, does layer 4 contain spiny stellate cells(Meyer et al., 1989). In all other parts of cortex, spiny stellate cells are nonexistent or very rare, and instead small pyramidal cells along with interneurons compose the majority of cells in L4. Quoting Lund ’There are no spiny stellate neurons in V2 in contrast to area V1 where they are the main neuron types of lamina 4’(Lund et al., 1981).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_pyramidal_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C4 appears to function as a corticocortical feedforward input system.'},{v:'83.066783, -160.205367'}]},{c:[{v:5.0},{v:'Parahippocampal gyrus/periallocortex Layers 2/3'},{v:'PH23 is used to describe the upper layers in the periallocortex that receive afferent projections from the isocortex (typically C3b)(Witter et al., 1989). Input to PH23 is topographically organized and dominated by multimodal association isocortex(Burwell, 2000). PH23 sends efferent projections to the hippocampus.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Parahippocampal_gyrus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the periallocortex appears to facilitate medium-term storage of associations, temporally acting between short-term and long-term memory, capable of mapping source C3b representations to target C3b representations in the isocortex.'},{v:'79.357602, -171.179943'}]},{c:[{v:4.0},{v:'Corpus Callosum'},{v:''},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Corpus_callosum\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'The corpus callosum is the large bundle of axonal fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.'},{v:'80.253468, -171.901920'}]},{c:[{v:7.0},{v:'Hippocampus / allocortex'},{v:'The hippocampus proper, called allocortex due to its lack of lamination and different appearance from isocortex, is a full circuit in and of itself(Amaral \46 Witter, 1989). The hippocampus is functionally dominated by the dentate gyrus (DG), CA3 fields, CA1 fields, and subiculum (Sb). A simplified feedforward picture shows the projection circuit loop as: isocortex  -\76  PH23  -\76  Dentate Gyrus  -\76  CA3  -\76  CA1  -\76  Subiculum  -\76  PH56  -\76  isocortex. Multiple feedback connections exist within this path(Amaral \46 Witter, 1989). The DG and olfactory bulb/subventricular zone are the only widely accepted brain structures consistently shown to contain adult neurogenesis (the new production of neurons) in the non-damaged primate brain(Gould, 2007). The hippocampus essentially receives all the same subcortical input as parahippocampal cortex described above(Amaral \46 Cowan, 1980).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Hippocampus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the hippocampus appears to associate perceptions in the isocortex through mapped representations in periallocortex based upon emotional context.'},{v:'77.713005, -165.739133'}]},{c:[{v:6.0},{v:'Parahippocampal gyrus/periallocortex Layers 5/6'},{v:'PH56 is used to describe the lower layers in the periallocortex that send efferent projections to the isocortex with origin/target laminar distributions similar to intercortical association projections (Figure 3)(Witter et al., 1989). PH56 generally projects back topographically in a reciprocal manner to multimodal association isocortex(Lavenex et al., 2002). PH56 receives afferent projections from the hippocampus.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Parahippocampal_gyrus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the periallocortex appears to facilitate medium-term storage of associations, temporally acting between short-term and long-term memory, capable of mapping source C3b representations to target C3b representations in the isocortex.'},{v:'78.784306, -171.039049'}]},{c:[{v:9.0},{v:'Specific thalamus - VA/VL'},{v:'The ventral group is composed of the ventral anterior (VA) and ventral lateral (VL) nuclei. VA and VL (having subdivisions themselves(Macchi \46 Jones, 1997)) generally project to the behavioral parts of the brain related to thinking (frontal cortex) and movement (motor cortex) respectively. We separate the ventral group from other Ts nuclei because of the aerent projections from the basal ganglia(Sidibe et al., 1997; M. Parent \46 Parent, 2004) and cerebellum(Sakai et al., 1996; Hamani et al., 2006), both involved in controlling thinking and movement.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Regional_part_of_thalamus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the specific thalamus appears to drive the convergent reentrant selection of C3b and C6t perceptual representations in cortico-thalamocortical oscillations.'},{v:'78.155119, -151.043255'}]},{c:[{v:8.0},{v:'Specific thalamus - P/LP, A/LD, MD'},{v:'The second non-primary Ts group of nuclei are composed of nuclei related to more sensory (as opposed to behavioral) regions of the brain. The pulvinar (P) and lateral posterior (LP) nuclei can be generally grouped (anatomically/functionally) and largely project to temporal and parietal isocortex. The anterior (A) and the lateral dorsal (LD) complex can be similarly grouped and are largely connected to cingular and retrosplenial cortex. Note the challenges in nuclei naming conventions, e.g. the lateral nuclei not being grouped together.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Regional_part_of_thalamus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the specific thalamus appears to drive the convergent reentrant selection of C3b and C6t perceptual representations in cortico-thalamocortical oscillations.'},{v:'78.193648, -156.115697'}]},{c:[{v:39.0},{v:'Basket Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Basket cells form the majority of interneurons, named for the basket like shape of synapses they form around the soma of pyramidal neurons(Cajal, 2002). Basket cells are typically fast spiking, parvalbumin staining, soma targeting, and have their highest densities between middle layer 3 and upper layer 5(Zaitsev et al., 2005; Lund \46 Lewis, 1993). Basket cells are often further differentiated by the size and or curvature of their often long (∼100s μm) horizontal axonal arborization(Zaitsev et al., 2009; Lund et al., 1993).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_basket_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'83.450119, -99.855944'}]},{c:[{v:38.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 3b cortically projecting'},{v:'Lower layer 3b in the isocortex is centrally located to be the hub of perceptual information processing in the cerebral cortex. The large pyramidal neurons located in the lower part of layer 3, just above the granular layer 4 could be included in multiple circuits including long-term memory, working memory/information processing, and behavior output. The C3b cells have the classic pyramidal neuron shape and are usually the second largest pyramidal neuron group next to C5p(Jones \46 Wise, 1977; Barbas, Hilgetag, et al., 2005; Rempel-Clower \46 Barbas, 2000). The C3b intracortical projections involve some of the longest (many millimeters) grey matter projections in the cerebral cortex(Kritzer \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1995; DeFelipe, 1997; Fujita \46 Fujita, 1996). The horizontal projections form stripe-like vertical patches and have all the same qualities described in the C3a group.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Layer_3_Pyramidal_Neuron\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C3b appears to function as stable invariant perceptual representations in the cerebral cortex that are associated in short-term memory.'},{v:'83.463915, -105.230312'}]},{c:[{v:11.0},{v:'Thalamic reticular nucleus'},{v:'The TRN is a thin shell of GABAergic neurons surrounding the entire thalamus(Scheibel \46 Scheibel, 1966). The majority of TRN afferent connections arise from ascending Ts and descending C6t projections(Jones, 1975). Different sizes of axonal boutons (small and large) in the TRN have been correlated with source cortical topology and layer (L6 and L5) respectively(Zikopoulos \46 Barbas, 2006). The TRN then projects directly onto the Ts in an inhibitory manner(Velayos et al., 1989; Scheibel \46 Scheibel, 1966). Other projections to the TRN include cholinergic projections from the brainstem as shown in the cat(Pare et al., 1988) and GABAergic projections from the basal ganglia GPe in the monkey targeting the ventral thalamic region(Asanuma, 1994).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Thalamic_reticular_nucleus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the TRN appears to function in gating thalamocortical information to regulate cognitive states.'},{v:'79.425636, -145.872928'}]},{c:[{v:10.0},{v:'Thalamic reticular nucleus'},{v:'The TRN is a thin shell of GABAergic neurons surrounding the entire thalamus(Scheibel \46 Scheibel, 1966). The majority of TRN afferent connections arise from ascending Ts and descending C6t projections(Jones, 1975). Different sizes of axonal boutons (small and large) in the TRN have been correlated with source cortical topology and layer (L6 and L5) respectively(Zikopoulos \46 Barbas, 2006). The TRN then projects directly onto the Ts in an inhibitory manner(Velayos et al., 1989; Scheibel \46 Scheibel, 1966). Other projections to the TRN include cholinergic projections from the brainstem as shown in the cat(Pare et al., 1988) and GABAergic projections from the basal ganglia GPe in the monkey targeting the ventral thalamic region(Asanuma, 1994).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Thalamic_reticular_nucleus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the TRN appears to function in gating thalamocortical information to regulate cognitive states.'},{v:'79.387605, -154.696101'}]},{c:[{v:13.0},{v:'Intralaminar thalamus'},{v:'The intralaminar thalamus is composed of the centre median (CM), parafasicular (PF), and midline nuclei(Jones, 2007). The midline nuclei are usually further subdivided into the central medial, paracentral, central lateral, and rhomboid nuclei. The intralaminar nuclei output to¬pographic projections to both the striatum and to the lower layers of the isocortex(I. Brysch et al., 1984; Tande et al., 2006; Sadikot, Parent, \46 Francois, 1992; Sadikot, Parent, Smith, \46 Bolam, 1992). In a gross topographic organization, PF is associated with frontal cortex and the caudate, CM with motor cortex and the putamen, and midline with cingular cortex and the nucleus accumbens. Ti projects dominantly to lower layers 5/6 in the cerebral cor¬tex(Herkenham, 1980). The most compelling evidence confirming this fact in primates comes from single-axon tracing studies in the monkey that undeniably demonstrate the majority of intralaminar (CM/PF) projections principally terminate in layers 5/6 with fewer collateral pro¬jections to layer 1(M. Parent \46 Parent, 2005). The Ti nuclei projections are largely segregated into those that project exclusively to the cerebral cortex and those that project to the matrix portion of the striatum(M. Parent \46 Parent, 2005). Historical note: The intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus were originally thought to provide the majority of the ’non-specific’ diffuse layer 1 input in the cerebral cortex identified by Lorente de No in the 1940’s(No, 1943). In the 1950’s, research focused on understanding the cortical ’recruiting response’ due to intralaminar electrode stimulation(Hanbery \46 Jasper, 1953, 1954). The recruiting response (most studied in cats) requires pulsed thalamic stimulation of 3-10 HZ(Verzeano et al., 1953). After tens of milliseconds, strong surface negative wave potentials would appear across widespread cortical areas. The widespread nature of the recruiting response was attributed to the thalamocortical layer 1 projections described by Lorente de No. The mea¬sured recruiting response is more widespread than Ts stimulation but topographically organized, which is consistent with the intralaminar topographic projection. Today, a more anatomically consistent viewpoint is that the recruiting response involves Ti-C5s-basal ganglia-Ti and/or Ti-basal ganglia-Ti-cortical circuits that prominently involve the lower layers of the cerebral cortex rather than layer 1. Future experiments are necessary for any definitive conclusion.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Intralaminar_nuclear_group\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the intralaminar thalamus appears to excite the behavioral output of the lower layers of the cerebral cortex to accurately select C5p output and drive cortical behaviors.'},{v:'78.026446, -141.774393'}]},{c:[{v:12.0},{v:'Thalamocortical layer 1 projections'},{v:'Herkenham first described a localized region of the thalamus in the mouse, VM, that projected diffusely to layer 1 of nearly the entire cerebral cortex(Herkenham, 1980, 1979). The projection has a decreasing density gradient from frontal cortex (cognitive) to parietal cortex (sensory). Other studies in the rat definitively confirm the VM → L1 projection(Mitchell \46 Cauller, 2001; Arbuthnott et al., 1990). The ventral thalamus in the monkey has significant projections to layer 1(Nakano et al., 1992; McFarland \46 Haber, 2002). However, a localized thalamic L1 projection nuclei has not been directly looked for in primates and we use the nuclei VAmc/VM to estimate the localized thalamic TL1 projection source occurring near the mammothalamic tract that presumably exists in the primate (human). The VAmc/VM nuclei receive projections from the Gpi/Snr and the cerebellum(Sidibe et al., 1997; Francois et al., 2002; M. Parent et al., 2001) and send projections back to the striatum(McFarland \46 Haber, 2001). As part of the reticular activating system the ventral (and other thalamic nuclei) receive afferent cholinergic projections from the brainstem(Steriade et al., 1988). We include in the TL1 definition the more sparsely distributed layer 1 projecting thalamic matrix described by Jones(Jones, 1998). Historical Note: One of the most perplexing thalamic projections has been the non-specific thalamocortical layer 1 projection described by Lorente de No in the 1940’s(No, 1943). The intralaminar thalamic nuclei have long been thought to supply the layer 1 projection, but given the infragranular (L5/6) targets of Ti that appears unlikely today(M. Parent \46 Par¬ent, 2005). Ironically, the discovery of the actual source of these layer 1 projections was surely, albeit unknowingly, discovered in the early electrophysiology intralaminar recruiting response experiments in cats(Hanbery \46 Jasper, 1953). Hanbery and Jaspers ’discovered a portion of the diffuse projection system which behaves quite differently from [the traditional recruiting re¬sponse]. In...VA...we have obtained diffuse short-latency cortical responses in response to a single shock...We seem to be stimulating here...a short latency diffuse projection system, which actually does not give true recruiting responses of the type presumably characteristic of the in¬tralaminar system’(Hanbery \46 Jasper, 1953). A focused experiment to directly test for this projection in the primate would be fruitful for neuroscience.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Thalamocortical_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the layer 1 thalamic projection appears to provide short latency cortical stimulation across widespread areas to activate and control cortical information processing.'},{v:'78.023410, -145.279812'}]},{c:[{v:15.0},{v:'Substantia nigra pars compacta'},{v:'The Snc is the source of dopaminergic projections in the basal ganglia. The Snc receives its major afferent input from the patch compartments in the striatum(Fujiyama et al., 2011; Gerfen, 1984). The Snc is tonically active and receives additional inhibitory input from virtually all other structures in the basal ganglia(Lee \46 Tepper, 2009). The Snc projects onto the matrix compartment of the striatum(Matsuda et al., 2009; Langer \46 Graybiel, 1989; Gerfen \46 Surmeier, 2010).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Substantia_nigra_pars_compacta\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the Snc appears to provide a differential dopamine reward signal to the striatum to learn start and stop action sequences.'},{v:'76.618796, -126.133461'}]},{c:[{v:14.0},{v:'Subthalamic nucleus'},{v:'The STN is the only excitatory nucleus in the basal ganglia and utilizes glutamate as a neurotransmitter. The STN appears to receive an excitatory topographically mapped isocortical afferent input from C5p neurons(M. Parent \46 Parent, 2006; Nambu et al., 2000) as well as inhibitory input from the Gpe(Sato et al., 2000). The STN projects prominently onto the Gpi/Snr and to the Gpe(A. Parent et al., 1989; Nambu et al., 2000). The STN has inhibitory GABAergic interneurons(J. C. Levesque \46 Parent, 2005).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Subthalamic_nucleus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the STN appears to provide a direct cortical mechanism to stop action triggering in the intralaminar thalamus through exciting the Gpi/Snr. A contrary hypothesis might suggest that the STN prepares desired output actions in Ti through increased inhibitory stimulation by the Gpi/Snr biasing future inhibitory rebound spikes.'},{v:'78.504136, -134.09952'}]},{c:[{v:17.0},{v:'Striatum matrix D2 receptor cells'},{v:'SmD2 neurons are GABAergic spiny projection neurons found within the matrix portion of the striatum that express dopamine D2 receptors. The effect of dopamine on SmD2 neurons decreases excitability(Surmeier et al., 2007). SmD2 is traditionally considered part of the indirect pathway through the basal ganglia because of its projections to the Gpe(Haber et al., 1990; M. Levesque \46 Parent, 2005).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Striatal_matrix_compartment\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, SmD2 appears as a C5s cortically evoked stop action mapping through the dual disinhibitory-disinhibitory indirect pathway SmD2 -\76 Gpe -\76 Gpi/Snr or the feedback pathway SmD2 -\76 Gpe -\76 SmD1 learned from negative dopamine reinforcement. '},{v:'79.433068, -122.670618'}]},{c:[{v:16.0},{v:'Globus pallidus external segment'},{v:'The Gpe neurons are GABAergic neurons that primarily receive inhibitory projections from the SmD2 portion of the striatum(Haber et al., 1990; M. Levesque \46 Parent, 2005) and excitatory projections from the STN(Nambu et al., 2000; A. Parent et al., 1989). Gpe neurons project onto the Gpi/Snr, Stn, and send feedback connections onto the matrix portion of the striatum(Sato et al., 2000). A potentially significant but rarely mentioned projection is the Gpe projection to the TRN of the ventral thalamus(Hazrati \46 Parent, 1991b; Asanuma, 1994; Gandia et al., 1993). Since the TRN provides inhibitory input to the thalamus, the Gpe projection to the TRN might be functionally analogous to the Gpe projection to the inhibitory Gpi/Snr that then projects onto the thalamus.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Globus_pallidus_external_segment\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, SmD2 appears as a C5s cortically evoked stop action mapping through the dual disinhibitory-disinhibitory indirect pathway SmD2 -\76 Gpe -\76 Gpi/Snr or the feedback pathway SmD2 -\76 Gpe -\76 SmD1 learned from negative dopamine reinforcement.'},{v:'78.259576, -124.803048'}]},{c:[{v:19.0},{v:'Striatum patch'},{v:'Sp neurons are GABAergic spiny projection neurons found in the patches of the striatum and project prominently to the Snc(Fujiyama et al., 2011; Haber et al., 1990). The Sp do send smaller number of axon collaterals into the Gpe and Gpi/Snr(M. Levesque \46 Parent, 2005). In contrast to the matrix, the patch compartments receive their input from C5p neurons in the isocortex(Gerfen, 1989, 1984).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Striosome\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, Sp appears as a C5p cortically evoked dopamine based learning signal via the Sp -\76 Snc pathway in order to reinforce the two Sm pathways.'},{v:'77.421902, -115.716745'}]},{c:[{v:18.0},{v:'Striatum matrix D1 receptor cells'},{v:'SmD1 neurons are GABAergic spiny projection neurons found within the matrix por¬tion of the striatum that express dopamine D1 receptors. The effect of dopamine on SmD1 neurons increases excitability(Surmeier et al., 2007). SmD1 is traditionally con¬sidered part of the direct pathway through the basal ganglia because of its projections to Gpi/Snr(M. Levesque \46 Parent, 2005). The projection is topographically maintained from the striatum to Gpi/Snr(Haber et al., 1990).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Striatal_matrix_compartment\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, SmD1 appears as a C5s cortically evoked start action mapping through the disinhibitory direct pathway SmD1 -\76 Gpi/Snr learned from positive dopamine reinforcement. '},{v:'78.072695, -116.316745'}]},{c:[{v:31.0},{v:'Martinotti Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Martinotti cells express calbindin and are unique in that they send a vertically projecting axon that arborizes horizontally in layer 1(Conde et al., 1994; Zaitsev et al., 2009).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_Martinotti_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'84.249147, -134.850991'}]},{c:[{v:30.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 3b cortically projecting'},{v:'Lower layer 3b in the isocortex is centrally located to be the hub of perceptual information processing in the cerebral cortex. The large pyramidal neurons located in the lower part of layer 3, just above the granular layer 4 could be included in multiple circuits including long-term memory, working memory/information processing, and behavior output. The C3b cells have the classic pyramidal neuron shape and are usually the second largest pyramidal neuron group next to C5p(Jones \46 Wise, 1977; Barbas, Hilgetag, et al., 2005; Rempel-Clower \46 Barbas, 2000). The C3b intracortical projections involve some of the longest (many millimeters) grey matter projections in the cerebral cortex(Kritzer \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1995; DeFelipe, 1997; Fujita \46 Fujita, 1996). The horizontal projections form stripe-like vertical patches and have all the same qualities described in the C3a group.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Layer_3_Pyramidal_Neuron\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C3b appears to function as stable invariant perceptual representations in the cerebral cortex that are associated in short-term memory.'},{v:'83.443657, -140.782292'}]},{c:[{v:37.0},{v:'Chandelier Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Chandelier cells are a class of axoaxonic parvalbumin inhibitory neurons which provide exclusive terminations on the initial axon segment of pyramidal neurons found mostly between layers 3 and 5(Conde et al., 1994; Defelipe et al., 1999; Lund \46 Lewis, 1993). Named for the vertical chandelier look alike synaptic boutons.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_chandelier_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'82.905602, -103.078135'}]},{c:[{v:36.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 5 pons projecting'},{v:'The C5p population refers to the collection of primarily pons (and other subcortically) project¬ing pyramidal cells found throughout the entire isocortex(Hackett et al., 2001; Watakabe et al., 2006). C5p neurons are located in layer 5b(Foster et al., 1981), have large dendritic tufts in layer 1, and are distinct from C5s neurons(Molnar \46 Cheung, 2006; Morishima \46 Kawaguchi, 2006). The C5p intracortical projections are not extensive, often restricted to short distances in layer 5(Ghosh \46 Porter, 1988), however their dendritic arborization is quite large. Generally, the largest neurons in the isocortex are C5p neurons and in primary motor cortex, C5p neurons are referred as large Betz cells(Braak \46 Braak, 1976). Since the majority of C5p neurons target the pons (relaying information to the cerebellum), we suggest that the cognitive function of C5p neurons may be inferred through analogy with Betz cells in primary motor cortex. The projections from C5p neurons in primary motor cortex synapse directly with the spinal chord causing physical movement(Stanfield, 1992). The direct projection to the spinal chord is weak in lower mammals, but becomes increasingly prominent in primates, and presumably dominates in humans, suggesting an increasingly more direct cortical involvement in behavior(Lemon \46 Griffiths, 2005). C5p projections from frontal cortex target the STN of the basal ganglia with collaterals to the striatum(Nambu et al., 2000; M. Parent \46 Parent, 2006). Evidence sug¬gests that C5p striatal projections target the Sp patch (striosome) portion of the striatum that projects to the dopamine filled Snc(Gerfen, 1989, 1984). The origin of C5p input should provide a clue to the synaptic organization of cognitive and physical behavior memory output throughout the brain. A synaptic relationship exists between C3b and C5p neuronal groups because of a preference for direct synaptic connections from C3b to C5p neurons potentially related to basal forebrain acetylcholine activity(Kaneko et al., 2000; Thomson \46 Deuchars, 1997; Thomson \46 Bannister, 1998).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_pyramidal_cell_layer_5-6\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C5p neurons appear to form the physical and cognitive behavioral output of the cerebral cortex.'},{v:'82.408650, -107.907007'}]},{c:[{v:35.0},{v:'Cortical pyramidal layer 5 striatally projecting'},{v:'C5s are pyramidal neurons in the isocortex that principally project to the striatum. C5s pyramidal neurons are typically located in the upper portion of layer 5, L5a, with a prominent ascending dendrite that arborizes in L1(Jones et al., 1977; Yeterian \46 Pandya, 1994; Arikuni \46 Kubota, 1986). C5s send projections to the matrix portion of the striatum(Gerfen, 1989; Jones \46 Wise, 1977; M. Parent \46 Parent, 2006). C5s neurons are likely the source of cortical projections to Ti that are distinct from C6t projections in the monkey(Catsman-Berrevoets \46 Kuypers, 1978) and cat(Kakei et al., 2001). C6t thalamic terminations are small and dense, while C5s synaptic terminals are large and sparse(Rouiller \46 Durif, 2004). The large terminals found in the TRN are likely a result of C5s collaterals(Zikopoulos \46 Barbas, 2006). In the rat, C5s and C5p neurons have been shown to be distinct populations(M. Levesque et al., 1996; Molnar \46 Cheung, 2006), with C5s having a higher probability of recurrent C5s -\76 C5s connections(Morishima \46 Kawaguchi, 2006). L5a intracortical projections have distant ∼1-2mm projections in layers 2/3a, and slightly longer projections within the same layer 5a(Kritzer \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1995; Levitt et al., 1993).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_pyramidal_cell_layer_5-6\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, C5s appears to encode suggested action sequences within a cortical module for selection in the basal ganglia.'},{v:'82.720063, -118.983971'}]},{c:[{v:34.0},{v:'Chandelier Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Chandelier cells are a class of axoaxonic parvalbumin inhibitory neurons which provide exclusive terminations on the initial axon segment of pyramidal neurons found mostly between layers 3 and 5(Conde et al., 1994; Defelipe et al., 1999; Lund \46 Lewis, 1993). Named for the vertical chandelier look alike synaptic boutons.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_chandelier_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'83.763719, -125.092398'}]},{c:[{v:33.0},{v:'Cajal-Retzius Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Cajal-Retzious cells are horizontally projecting interneurons found exclusively in layer 1 of the cerebral cortex and are the only cells found in layer 1(Cajal, 2002; Conde et al., 1994; Gabbott \46 Bacon, 1996).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_Cajal-Retzius_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'84.330963, -128.009797'}]},{c:[{v:32.0},{v:'Neurogliaform Cells - Interneuron'},{v:'Neurogliaform cells are small, express calbindin, and are found throughout all layers, but biased toward superficial layers with a tight dense plexus of axons(Gabbott \46 Bacon, 1996; Zaitsev et al., 2005; Lund \46 Lewis, 1993).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neurogliaform_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, interneurons appear to synchronize information processing and facilitate excitatory competition through localized vertical and horizontal inhibitory projections enabling cortical information processing.'},{v:'84.045023, -130.432282'}]},{c:[{v:45.0},{v:'Cerebral Cortex'},{v:'The human cerebral cortex is a 2.5mm thick sheet of tissue approximately 2400cm2 (four 8.5x11 pieces of paper) in size folded up around the entire brain(Toro et al., 2008). The cerebral cortex consists of a homotypical six layer pattern of neuron density distribution(Economo, 1929; No, 1943). The cerebral cortex develops inside out, with neurons in the innermost layer (L6) migrating into place first and neurons in successive outer layers migrating into place later(Rakic, 1995). Cortical laminar dierentiation lies along a very clear spectrum with input sensory cortex being the most laminated/granular and output motor cortex being the least laminated/granular(Economo, 1929) (see Figure 3c). The lamination gradient represents a major clue in functional organization. The cerebral cortex can be grouped into the isocortex (neocortex), allocortex (paleocortex), periallocortex, and koniocortex (primary vision, auditory, somatosensory, and granulous retrosplenial cortex) based on laminar dierentiation and developmental origin. The koniocortices are based on the same underlying anatomical principles of six layers and have evolved additional structure for their more specific sensory roles(Northcutt \46 Kaas, 1995). The patterns of laminar dierentiation have been used to parse the entire cerebral cortex into distinct areas often called Brodmann\47s areas(Brodmann, 1909; Triarhou, 2007). A large amount of experimental evidence on the cerebral cortex, from lesion studies to electrophysiology to FMRI, point to localized cortical information processing modules on the order of a few mm2(Catani \46 ytche, 2005; Szentagothai, 1975). Each area appears to process a distinct type of information re ecting the external and internal perceptions/behaviors of the individual, such as visual objects, language, executive plans, or movements(Penfield \46 Rasmussen, 1968; Tanaka, 2003; Goldman-Rakic, 1996; Grafton et al., 1996). The what of cortical information processing is thus highly localized and modular. The neuroanatomical organization underlying these what regions follows a very homotypical blueprint, which drives a functional perspective that how information is processed throughout the cerebral cortex is the same.'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Cerebral_cortex\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'84.531216, -140.829572'}]},{c:[{v:47.0},{v:'Specific Thalamus'},{v:'Specific thalamic neurons project to the mid layers in the cerebral cortex. Ts thalamocorti¬cal projections are to lower layer 3b in primate isocortex, often avoiding layer 4(Jones, 2007; Romanski et al., 1997; Jones \46 Burton, 1976; Trojanowski \46 Jacobson, 1976; Rockland et al., 1999; McFarland \46 Haber, 2002; Giguere \46 Goldman-Rakic, 1988), while only koniocortical projections are to layer 4(Callaway, 1998). The Ts thalamocortical projection is localized (\74 a few mm2) and topologically organized in the cerebral cortex in accordance with the temporal development of projections(W. Brysch et al., 1990; Hohl-Abrahao \46 Creutzfeldt, 1991; Vogt et al., 1987; Goldman-Rakic \46 Porrino, 1985; Baleydier \46 Mauguiere, 1987; Kievit \46 Kuypers, 1977). The Ts is composed of multiple histologically identifiable subnuclei that can be further subdivided based on afferent/efferent projections. We functionally separate the non-primary Ts into two main groups and adhere to Jones’ terminology(Jones, 2007). Historical note: The early work by Cajal and Lorente de No, along with the disproportionate amount of research dedicated to primary sensory areas, appears to have ingrained layer 4 as the generally taught location of specific thalamocortical projections. The notion that the Ts thalamocortical projections terminate in layer 4 must be updated throughout the neuroscience world to differentiate between koniocortex layer 4 and isocortex layer 3b terminations. As Ted Jones says ’Outside these areas[koniocortex]...thalamic fibers tend to avoid layer IV and terminate almost completely in the deeper half of layer III.’pg.95(Jones, 2007). '},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Thalamus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:'Viewpoint: Neuroanatomically, the specific thalamus appears to drive the convergent reentrant selection of C3b and C6t perceptual representations in cortico-thalamocortical oscillations.'},{v:'77.357668, -152.604898'}]},{c:[{v:49.0},{v:'Basal Ganglia'},{v:'The basal ganglia is a structure that is essential for learning and coordination in movement and cognition(Benke et al., 2003; Van Essen, 2005; Lauterbach, 2005; Doya, 1999). The basal ganglia is composed of multiple subnuclei. The historical naming of the basal ganglia does not make the homotypical groupings intuitive. The striatum, containing GABAergic projection neurons, is the dominant input structure and is comprised of the putamen, caudate, and nucleus accum¬bens (also called the ventral striatum). The globus pallidus external segment (Gpe), referred to only as the globus pallidus in the mouse, dominates the internal circuitry of the basal ganglia. The globus pallidus internal segment (Gpi) and substantia nigra pars reticulata (Snr) form a spatially disjoint but functionally singular GABAergic output structure of the basal ganglia (Gpi/Snr). The subthalamic nucleus (Stn) provides glutamatergic excitatory input to multiple elements in the basal ganglia. The substantia nigra pars compacta (Snc) provides dopaminergic input to the striatum, the damage of which is the source of Parkinson disease. Huntington’s disease involves the degeneration of the striatum progressing from motor (putamen) to cog¬nitive (caudate) deficits (degeneration)(Heindel et al., 1989). The same correlations between motor/cognitive deficits and putamen/caudate dysfunction is found in Parkinson’s(Lauterbach, 2005). The projections through the basal ganglia are organized into parallel, yet overlapped path¬ways from the entire isocortex(Smith et al., 2004, 1998) forming a homotypical architecture. Primary auditory and visual cortex are the only cortices that do not project to the basal ganglia in the monkey(Borgmann \46 Jurgens, 1999). Most nuclei in the basal ganglia rely on GABA as a neurotransmitter forming a consistent disinhibitory functional pathway. The GABAergic neurons in the basal ganglia are inherently tonically active and do not require input to continu-ally fire action potentials. Based on neuron number, a significant amount of neural convergence occurs from input to output through the basal ganglia. The human and rat striatum have about 70M and 2.8M neurons respectively(Kreczmanski et al., 2007; Oorschot, 1996). In both species the number of neurons decrease approximately 50 to 1 (striatum → Gpe) and 2 to 1 (Gpe → Gpi/Snr)(Oorschot, 1996; Hardman et al., 2002), resulting in a 100 to 1 neural convergence of basal ganglia input to output. Several excellent reviews of the basal ganglia and dopamine system exist(Gerfen \46 Surmeier, 2010; Lee \46 Tepper, 2009; Haber, 2003; Herrero et al., 2002).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Basal_ganglia\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'75.33,-129.704898'}]},{c:[{v:48.0},{v:'Thalamus'},{v:'The thalamus has a uniform organization and highly stereotyped reciprocal projections with the cerebral cortex. For the interested reader, the thalamic bible written by the late Ted Jones is unparalleled in its descriptive depth of the thalamus(Jones, 2007). The thalamus is composed of multiple nuclei that can be identified histologically and by the source/target of their afferent/efferent projections(Macchi \46 Jones, 1997). The general organization of the thalamus leads us to divide the thalamus into three homotypical types: specific (Ts), intralaminar (Ti), and layer 1 projecting (TL1). The division into three types of thalamic projections is novel and imparts a functional perspective to the target laminar location of thalamic neurons. Although thalamic neurons undoubtedly project to multiple layers, usually via collateral projections, the first-order homotypical architecture of thalamic laminar projections warrants a division into three distinct (source thalamus -target cortical layer) combinations: Ts -layers 3/4, Ti -layers 5/6, and TL1 -layer 1. '},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Thalamus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'76.037668, -153.104898'}]},{c:[{v:52.0},{v:'Metencephalon'},{v:'The metencephalon primarily includes the pons, cerebellum, and deep cerebellar nuclei. '},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Metencephalon\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'75,-107.2'}]},{c:[{v:50.0},{v:'Parahippocampal gyrus'},{v:'The parahippocampal gyrus, also called periallocortex because of its transitional laminar struc¬ture between isocortex and allocortex, consists of the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices. A re¬ciprocal topographic connectivity exists between association isocortices and periallocortices that are well mapped, but the actual specificity of laminar projections remains vague at best(Burwell, 2000; Lavenex et al., 2002; Witter et al., 1989). The periallocortex contains intralayer connec¬tivity similar to regular isocortex with less laminar differentiation. The periallocortex is the neuronal interface between the isocortex and the hippocampus, since the isocortex does not typically project directly to the hippocampus. The afferent input and efferent output of the pe¬riallocortex can grossly be split into upper (PH23) and lower (PH56) layers respectively based on its projections with the isocortex and allocortex. To a lesser degree, the periallocortex receives subcortical input from the amygdala, claustrum, basal forebrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, and brainstem(Insausti et al., 1987).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Parahippocampal_gyrus\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'75.33,-170.0'}]},{c:[{v:53.0},{v:'Interneurons'},{v:'Cortical interneurons utilize gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) as an inhibitory neurotrans¬mitter and have axonal arbors that do not exit to the white matter. The increase in cortical interneuron number and complexity of organization has long been cited by neuroanatomists as a standard feature of phylogenetic evolution, humans having the greatest number and com¬plexity(Cajal, 2002). Interneuron organization is complex, requiring attempts to standardize terminology(Alonso-Nanclares et al., 2005). Interneurons are usually first characterized by their morphology, axonal arborization and specificity of projections. Second, interneurons are often further differentiated by calcium binding protein staining (parvulbumin, calbindin and calre¬tinin) and their physiological firing properties. In the human, interneurons arise developmentally from two unique genetic expression patterns corresponding to the dorsal forebrain, a cerebral cortex precursor, and the ventral forebrain, a thalamic precursor(Letinic et al., 2002). Dendritic and axonal arborization of all inhibitory neurons are less than a few 100 µms in the mon¬key(Lund \46 Lewis, 1993). Inhibitory interneurons are the only known cortical neurons to form gap junctions and typically form gap junctions between the same type of interneuron(Gibson et al., 1999; Hestrin \46 Galarreta, 2005). Gap junctions have the property of spreading inhibition and synchronizing firing. In general, inhibitory GABAergic neurons are biased toward the upper layers of cortex. For conceptual simplicity, the dominant classes of interneurons are summarized in six neuroanatomical groupings (Basket cells, Chandelier cells, Neurogliaform cells, Martinotti cells, Double bouquet cells, and Cajal-Retzious cells).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neocortex_Martinotti_cell\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'84.55,-105.0'}]},{c:[{v:51.0},{v:'Striatum'},{v:'The striatum can be divided into histologically defined compartments called the matrix (ma¬trisome) and patch (striosome). Among other factors, the matrix compartments have high cholinesterase activity, while patches are enriched in enkephalin (i.e. endorphins)(Gerfen, 1984). The striatum contains multiple interneurons containing both GABA and acetylcholine forming distinct intrastriatal networks(Kawaguchi et al., 1995). The matrix compartments of the striatum receive projections from C5s neurons across the entire isocortex(Jones et al., 1977; Yeterian \46 Pandya, 1994; Arikuni \46 Kubota, 1986; Kunishio \46 Haber, 1994). The cortical projections are topographically mapped(Alexander et al., 1986). In general the striatum receives reciprocal projections back from the thalamic nuclei that it projects to. The intralaminar thalamus projects topographically onto the striatum with the rough order CM→putamen, PF→caudate, midline→ventral striatum(Tande et al., 2006; Sadikot, Parent, \46 Francois, 1992; Sadikot, Parent, Smith, \46 Bolam, 1992). The ventral thalamus also projects back onto the striatum(McFarland \46 Haber, 2001).'},{v:'\74a target\75\47_blank\47 href\75\47http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Striatum\47\76Neurolex Link\74/a\076'},{v:''},{v:'76.6,-117.6'}]}],p:{totalrows:53}}})